anti sars cov 2 spike protein test results interpretation

Figures were created with BioRender.com. DW, and MGA are named on patents that describe lipid nanoparticles for delivery of nucleic acid therapeutics, including mRNA and the use of modified mRNA in lipid nanoparticles as a vaccine platform. K18-hACE2 transgenic mice are highly susceptible and displayed clinical signs following SARS-CoV-2 challenge22,23. ChulaCov19 is therefore a promising mRNA vaccine candidate either as a primary or boost vaccination and has entered clinical development. The mRNA vaccine technology transfer hub [updated 21 June 2022. First bivalent COVID-19 booster vaccine approved by UK medicines regulator). b Pseudovirus neutralization test (psVNT50) titers at two weeks after the second dose againt WT (Wuhan-Hu1), Delta (B.1.617.2), Omciron (BA.1, and BA.4/5) variants. Do ketogenic diets elevate low-density lipoprotein cholesterol levels? van Doremalen, N. et al. PubMed Central SARS-CoV-2 is an enveloped positive-sense single-stranded RNA beta coronavirus with a 30 kb polycistronic genome that encodes non-structural proteins (ORF1a and ORF1b, that are processed into Nsp1-16) at the 5-end, and structural proteins (S, E, M and N), and several other accessory factors (ORF3a . This is similar to the previous study of mRNA-1273, which demonstrated that a minimum NAb titer (analyzed by focus reduction neutralization test) of approximately 2,000 was required to completely protect K18-ACE2 mice from ancestral virus with D614G infection32. This study was performed using sera collected between October 2021 and December 2021 from a real life cohort of 69 individuals attending internal medicine and infectious diseases department of the European Hospital (Marseille). News-Medical, viewed 01 May 2023, https://www.news-medical.net/news/20230427/Neurological-phenotypes-induced-by-SARS-CoV-2-spike-protein-in-neurons.aspx. World Health Organization. As required by French regulations, patients attending clinical laboratories are informed that their biological results can be used for research purposes and that they are free to refuse to allow this (information annotated in the clinical laboratory report). This was concordant with the previous findings that Omicron subvariants could evade NAb induced by the first-generation or WT-virus-based vaccines46. The plasmid was propagated in E. coli (Stbl3, Invitrogen, Carlsbad, CA, USA) and extracted by EndoFree Giga Kit (Qiagen, Hilden, Germany). For example, for 10g dose group, the GMTs of psVNT50 for Delta (B.1.617.2) and Omicron (BA.1) variants decreased 5.9 and 14.3 folds when compared against WT (Wuhan-Hu1) strain, respectively (Fig. Elecsys Anti-SARS-CoV-2 serology assay is intended for the detection of IgM and IgG antibodies to SARS-CoV-2 in human serum and plasma. This is especially true of the mRNA vaccines, and the approach has shown better results than homologous prime-boost with a non-mRNA-based vaccine51. Mid-point titers were calculated and expressed as the reciprocals of the dilution that showed an optical density (OD) at 50% of the maximum value substracted with the background (BSA plus secondary antibody). Increasing evidence suggests that vaccination regimens for COVID-19, that are applied to the general population, do not adequately protect a significant proportion of immunocompromised patients [5,6]. Boxplots for each antibody binding assay according to Genscript sVNT positive and negative results. The vaccine effectiveness is varied due to several factors such as the emergence of new variants, study population, and prevalence of the outbreak during the period the studies were conducted11,12,13. Monoclonal anti-RBD (1:2,500), polyclonal-anti-S1 (1:5,000), -anti-S2 (1:5,000) or PSC (1:5,000) were used for detection of S protein in this step. To detect SARS-CoV-2 RNA localization in mouse tissues samples, FFPE tissues of lung and nasal cavity were performed by using RNAscope In situ hybridization (ISH) assay. In Experiment 3, the durability of NAb induced by ChulaCov19 was monitored until week 18 (15 weeks after the 2nd dose). In a recent study posted to the bioRxiv* preprint server, researchers explored the association between severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) spike protein and burst activities in neurons. No significant difference among agreements was observed. When compared with psVNT50 titers against BA.1, the GMT reduction against BA.4/5 in 10 and 30g dosed groups were 48 and 2.3 folds, respectively. Helmy, Y. Lysis solution was added for 1h at RT before measuring OD at 540nm. It also can show how your body reacted to COVID-19 vaccines. The 4-week gap was used according to the preclinical study protocol of ChAdOX-vectored vaccines65,66. SARS-CoV-2 Antibody Profile, Nucleocapsid and Spike For example, the micro-VNT50 GMT against WT (Wuhan-Hu1) in the AZD1222-prime/ChulaCov19-boost group was 7-fold higher than 2-dose AZD1222 immunization (GMT of micro-VNT50 were 31,042 vs 4457, p=0.0079). PubMed Safety and Immunogenicity of ChulaCov19 BNA159 mRNA Vaccine.). The S protein trimer (S-trimer), depicted in Fig. Secreted S protein was also subjected for analysis of its binding capability to hACE2. KR, DW, MGA, CK, EP, and SB are co-inventors of the submitted ChulaCov19 mRNA vaccines Patent. x1 AQ1DIt-~+qc U/ )@J R/ )@J R/ )@J R/ )@J R/ )@J R/ )@J R/ )@J R/ )@J R/ )@J R/ )@J R/ )@J R/ )@J R/ )@J R/ )@J R/ )@J R/ )@J R/ )@J R/ )@J R/ )@J R/ )@J R/ )@J R/ )@J R/ )@J R/ )@J R/ )@J R/ )@J R/ )@J R/ )@J R/ )@J R/ )@J R/ )@J R/ )@J R/ )@J R/ )@J R/ )@J R/ )@J R/ )@J R/ )@J R/ )@J R/ )@J R/ )@J R/ )@J R/ )@J R/ )@J R/ )@J R/ )@J R/ )@J R/ )@J R/ )@J R/ )@J R/ )@J R/ )@J R/ )@J R/ )@J R/ )@J R/ )@J R/ )@J R/ )@J R/ )@J R/ )@J R/ )@J R/ )@J R/ )@J R/ )@J R/ )@J R/ )@J R/ )@J R/ )@J _3 Tracking SARS-CoV-2 variants 2022 [updated 11 August 2022; cited 2022 19 August]. Google Scholar. The second dose of ChulaCov19 strongly augmented the IgG antibody levels with an increase of 10-19 folds, p<0.01 for all dose ranges (Fig. This study was performed on data retrieved from 69 individuals, who received at least one dose of the Pfizer/BioNTech BNT162b2 or Moderna COVID-19 vaccine (Spikevax) at the Alphabio Laboratory in Marseille, France (European Hospital, AlphabioBiogroup). : study conception and design, E.P., K.T., and C.K. The Abbott Architect SARS-CoV-2 IgG II assay, run under an emergency use authorization from the FDA, is quantitative test designed to detect IgG antibodies to the spike protein of SARS-CoV-2 in serum and plasma from individuals with an adaptive immune response to SARS-CoV-2, indicating recent or prior infection. Statistical analysis significance was determined by two-sided MannWhitney test. Int J Infect Dis 112, 227234 (2021). SARS-CoV-2 RNA-positive cells were examined and counted unblind by certified personnel. Many types of tests are used to detect SARS-CoV-2, 1 and their performance characteristics vary. tG gh3o^r3^Z\PQE5)?xLr3El79/iDm}y)MjbV|bBuD7l[U}\Cxo 4c). endstream In contrast, ChulaCov19 immunized mice, both 1g and 10g doses enabled 100% survival compared to full mortality rate in PBS-immunized mice. Contact: commserv@uw.edu | mSphere 7, e0024322 (2022). News-Medical. Background Identifying a specific threshold level of SARS-CoV-2 antibodies that confers protection in immunocompromised patients has been very challenging. Lancet 397, 881891 (2021). a-0ZG{Px(rA![|-Ml0(9ELO_>+Rf_I4!=fuPq^$\1$j/ Nat Commun 13, 4610 (2022). SARS-CoV-2 Antibodies (NCVIGG, NCVIGQ)[NCVIGB], The qualitative detection of anti-Nucleocapsid IgG (NCVIGG) and the quantitative detection of anti-Spike IgG (NCVIGQ) antibodies. In each experiment, 3 internal controls (No Template Control (NTC), Negative Extraction Control (NEC) and Positive Extraction Control (PEC)) and 6 in vitro transcribed RNA standards were run along with test samples in each experiment. Am J Epidemiol 89, 422434 (1969). 7, eabi5246 (2021). Note; 4 mice in 10g group were analyzed for psVNT50 against BA.4/5 due to the limited volume of serum samples. Unfortunately, it has also been proven that vaccine efficacy decreases over time14. Roche Diagnostics, Inc. - Elecsys Anti-SARS-CoV-2 S. This test detects human SARS-CoV-2 antibodies . The authors would like to thanks Dr.Navapon Techakriengkrai, Faculty of Veterinary Science, Chulalongkorn University for providing HEK293T-hACE-2 cells. Slides were then incubated with protease plus for 20min at 40C in a HybEZTM oven (ACD) and subsequently incubated with the SARS-CoV-2 specific probe for 2h at 40C in the HybEZTM oven. Understanding Your Spike Protein Results | CityMD At 24h before transfection, 1105 Vero E6 cells were seeded in a 24-well plate (Thermo Fisher Scientific, MA, USA). Using western blot, the S protein could be detected in cell culture supernatant when using anti-RBD, -S1, -S2 and PCS as primary antibodies. Reactive (Positive, 50.0 AU/mL) results may be due to immunization or past or present infection with SARS-CoV-2. Results are reported as AU/mL. With such promising results from animal studies, the same formulation of ChulaCov19 vaccine that had been tested in animals is currently in phase 1-2 of clinical trials and can be manufactured locally for later clinical development. No serologic tests for SARS-CoV-2 are approved by the FDA; some, but not all, commercially available serologic tests for SARS-CoV-2 have received EUAs . The study also noted that the RBD may be accountable for the suppression of neuronal signals. The Euroimmun Anti-SARS-CoV-2 IgG and IgA tests are separate ELISAs that detect antibodies against the S1 subunit of the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein. Peer reviewer reports are available. Spencer, A. J. et al. Hum Vaccin Immunother 12, 23512356 (2016). Use the Previous and Next buttons to navigate the slides or the slide controller buttons at the end to navigate through each slide. DNA vaccine candidate encoding SARS-CoV-2 spike proteins elicited potent humoral and Th1 cell-mediated immune responses in mice. Supernatant collected from transfected cell was incubated with HEK293T-hACE-2 at 37 oC for 1h then washed twice with PBS. Based on these studies, a threshold of 264 BAU/ml antibody was used as a recommendation for the use of PrEP in SARS-CoV-2 in France, and extrapolated to immunocompromised patients [9]. These viruses adapted to increase the transmissibility, severity and/or immune evasion8. PLoS One 16, e0248007 (2021). Human codon-optimized sequences of the ectodomain of SARS-CoV-2 spike protein, amino acid position 1-1,210 (Wuhan Hu-1 complete genome, GenBank: MN908947.1, https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/nuccore/MN908947.1) was synthesized by GenScript, Piscataway, NJ, USA). mRNA capping was performed by the trinucleotide cap1 analog, CleanCap (TriLink Biotechnologies, San Diego, CA, USA). The procedure of mouse IFN- ELISPOT used in this study was described in our previous reports56,72. Beyond the techniques used for the viral detection, the inverse correlation between vaccine dosage and tissue viremia might be the results of the quality of T cell response induced by the high vaccine dosage. Center of Excellence in Vaccine Research and Development (Chula VRC), Faculty of Medicine, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, 10330, Thailand, Eakachai Prompetchara,Chutitorn Ketloy,Kittipan Tharakhet,Papatsara Kaewpang,Nongnaphat Yostrerat,Patrawadee Pitakpolrat,Supranee Buranapraditkun,Kanitha Patarakul,Teerasit Techawiwattanaboon,Tanapat Palaga&Kiat Ruxrungtham, Department of Laboratory Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, 10330, Thailand, Eakachai Prompetchara,Chutitorn Ketloy,Kittipan Tharakhet&Patrawadee Pitakpolrat, Integrated Frontier Biotechnology for Emerging Disease, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, 10330, Thailand, Eakachai Prompetchara,Chutitorn Ketloy,Kanitha Patarakul&Kiat Ruxrungtham, Division of Infectious Diseases, University of Pennsylvania Perelman School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, 19104, USA, Department of Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, 10330, Thailand, Thai Pediatric Gastroenterology, Hepatology and Immunology (TPGHAI) Research Unit, Faculty of Medicine, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, 10330, Thailand, Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Science, Mahidol University, Bangkok, 10400, Thailand, Suwimon Manopwisedjaroen&Arunee Thitithanyanont, Virology and Cell Technology Research Team, National Center for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology (BIOTEC), National Science and Technology Development Agency (NSTDA), Pathumthani, 12120, Thailand, Department of Virology, Armed Forces Research Institute of Medical Sciences (AFRIMS), Bangkok, 10400, Thailand, Department of Veterinary Medicine, USAMD-AFRIMS, Bangkok, 10400, Thailand, BioNet-Asia, Co. Ltd, Bangkok, 10260, Thailand, Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, 10330, Thailand, Kanitha Patarakul&Teerasit Techawiwattanaboon, Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Science, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, 10330, Thailand, Genevant Sciences Corporation, Vancouver, BC, V5T 4T5, Canada, Department of Medicine, and School of Global Health, Faculty of Medicine, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, 10330, Thailand, You can also search for this author in A Multi-Targeting, Nucleoside-Modified mRNA Influenza Virus Vaccine Provides Broad Protection in Mice. The opinions expressed here are the views of the writer and do not necessarily reflect the views and opinions of News Medical. Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative. These results reflect that ChulaCov19 was highly immunogenic and induced a Th1-skewed response in mice. Quantitative Measurement of Anti-SARS-CoV-2 Antibodies: Analytical and The team assessed the data using an algorithm devised in-house. Prefusion RSV F Immunization Elicits Th2-Mediated Lung Pathology in Mice When Formulated With a Th2 (but Not a Th1/Th2-Balanced) Adjuvant Despite Complete Viral Protection. At this time-point, 10g dosed mice induced significantly higher in GMTs of micro-VNT50 titers than 1g dosed mice (p=0.0065). The goal of experiment 2 was to assess the potential role of ChulaCov19 as a booster in a setting of heterologous primed with other COVID-19 vaccine platforms. The same dosage of approved vaccines were used with a dose of 5g ChulaCov19 (1/10 of the human dose used in Phase 2 Trial). In terms of spike-specific T-cell responses, our study found that AZD1222 prime/ChulaCov19 boost induced the highest magnitude of T cell response, superior to that of all tested regimens, including the homologous ChulaCov19 (Fig. Lancet 396, 19791993 (2021). This research focuses on the impacts of the S protein. Owned and operated by AZoNetwork, 2000-2023. Overview of Testing for SARS-CoV-2, the virus that causes COVID-19 Whether differences in response impact vaccine efficacy needs further study. Some tests provide results rapidly (within minutes); others require 1-3 days for processing. An mRNA Vaccine against SARS-CoV-2 - Preliminary Report. Two approved mRNA vaccines, ComirnatyTM by Pfizer/BioNTech and SpikevaxTM by Moderna, comprise 2 proline substitutions at residues 986 and 987 of the S-protein (known as S-2P) to stabilize the prefusion conformational structure. As with many viral respiratory infections, knowledge of the immune response to SARS-CoV-2 after a natural infection or vaccination, that could be predictive of the protection conferred, is challenging and not well established [14]. endstream ChAdOx1 nCoV-19 vaccine prevents SARS-CoV-2 pneumonia in rhesus macaques. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0281257, Editor: Deniz Can Guven, Elazg Fethi Sekin City Hospital: Elazig Fethi Sekin Sehir Hastanesi, TURKEY, Received: November 17, 2022; Accepted: January 18, 2023; Published: April 28, 2023. 6c. Alexander-Miller, M. A., Leggatt, G. R. & Berzofsky, J. In the challenge study, NAb was also assessed by live-virus microneutralization test against strain hCoV-19/Hongkong/VM20001061/2020 with slightly different incubation period and detection technique. Agreement between the antibody binding assays and the Genscript sVNT assay is shown in Table 2. A threshold of 20% was used for positivity. Goat-anti-mouse IgG-FITC, donkey-anti-rabbit IgG-FITC (both were from BioLegend, CA, USA) or goat-anti-human AlexaFluor647 (Southern Biotech, AL, USA), at dilution of 1:5,000 was used as secondary antibodies following anti-RBD, -S1, -S2 or PCS staining. Higher doses induce better cross-NAb against Delta (B.1.617.2) and Omicron (BA.1 and BA.4/5) variants. In contrast, sham-treated animals failed to show any NAb response except for one animal on Wk5+6d (Fig. Koonpaew, S. et al. The average reduction of viral load in tissues of both vaccine-treated groups relative to the control was 99.9-100%. 2c). The presence of three SARS-CoV-2 genes (ORF1ab, nucleocapsid protein (N), and spike protein (S)) was identified using real-time PCR with the TaqPath RT-PCR COVID-19 kit (Thermo Fisher Scientific . Single-dose administration and the influence of the timing of the booster dose on immunogenicity and efficacy of ChAdOx1 nCoV-19 (AZD1222) vaccine: a pooled analysis of four randomised trials. Guilhem Cavaille, (2023, April 27). Citation: Halfon P, Jordana S, Blachier S, Cartlamy P, Kbaier L, Psomas CK, et al. ];V^srE]DwCyTPre_fyG;Cb@*\d$ j '-|,!]jF/J9r\s%3! It also markedly reduced viral RNA burden in serum and tissues. The function of secreted S protein also determined whether it could bind to hACE-2. Frdrique Retornaz, Pharmaceutics 14, 1427 (2022). Follow-up testing with a molecular diagnostic should be considered to rule out infection in these individuals. And the GMT NAb titer against WT (Wuhan-Hu1) in the CoronaVac-prime/ChulaCov19-boost group was also 7-fold higher than 2-dose of the CoronaVac group (GMT of micro-VNT50 were 23,525 vs 3378, p=0.0317), Fig. They concluded that higher levels of all immune markers were correlated with a reduced risk of symptomatic infection. SARS-CoV-2 spike-protein D614G mutation increases virion spike density and infectivity. broad scope, and wide readership a perfect fit for your research every time. One of these was the low number of samples that were subjected to antibody quantification and the absence of an independent international standard (WHO in IU/ml). https://apps.who.int/iris/handle/10665/363344 (2022). The ChulaCov19 vaccine development program has exactly this goal, striving to address the current and future pandemics in LMICs54. Bar-On, L. et al. Google Scholar. Ma, Q. et al. Percentage of virus infectivity in virus control (VC) and samples were calculated based on OD of cell control (CC), infectivity (%) = (OD of CC OD of sample) x 100. We recommend outside providers arrange to have their patients' blood drawn at their usual clinical draw sites and sent to the lab, preferably after contacting Client Support Services at commserv@uw.edu to facilitate testing. Philippe Halfon, Molecular-based testing is used to diagnose COVID-19, and serologic testing of antibodies specific to SARS-CoV-2 is used to detect past infection. After 2 doses of ChulaCov19 or phosphate-buffered saline (PBS, control group) with a 3-week interval, K18-hACE2 mice were tested for NAb kinetics against live SARS-CoV-2 strain hCoV-19/Hongkong/VM20001061/2020. Most of these tests detect antibodies to one of two types of protein from the coronavirus: Nucleocapsid (N) protein Spike (S) protein UW MedicineDepartment of Laboratory MedicineVirology- Covid Testing Lab1601 Lind Ave SWRenton, WA 980573356Tel: (206) 685-6656 opt 4. Quantitative SARS-CoV-2 anti-spike responses to Pfizer - PubMed "Neurological phenotypes induced by SARS-CoV-2 spike protein in neurons". WIPO (2020). xA 0 @L One-day-old Vero E6 cells were used for measuring the level of neutralizing antibodies by live-virus micro-neutralization (micro-VNT50). Comparable to the S1 data, the team identified a significant reduction in surge activities. Lipid nanoparticles). Cohen J. HEK293T-hACE-2 cells, prepared by transduction of HEK293T cell line with lentiviral habouring hACE-2 gene, used for hACE-2 binding assay was gratefully provided by Dr.Navapon Techakriengkrai55. Tissues were collected at week 5+6 days for assessment of viral RNA. The OD450 of blanks were subtracted from OD450 of each sample before calculating antibody titer. The results were compared to the percent inhibition calculated using a functional surrogate of a standardized virus neutralization test (Genscript). The results revealed that the NAb against WT (Wuhan-Hu1) and Delta (B.1.617.2) variants were still detectable in all mice (5/5) but 4/5 mice for Omicron BA.1 and BA.4/5. Differences were considered significant at p<0.05 with exact p-values shown. SARS-CoV-2 Surrogate Virus Neutralization Test (sVNT) Kit (cPass) was purchased from Genscript (Piscataway, USA). The NT50 titer decrease found in our study was similar to those of other approved vaccines as the titers against BA.1 and BA.4/5 decreased by more than 8-10 folds when compared to the WT virus46,47,48. Monovalent vs. bivalent vaccines Which is more effective against SARS-CoV-2? https://solidarites-sante.gouv.fr/IMG/pdf/cosv_-_recommandations_pour_la_protection_des_personnes_severement_immunodeprimees_-_19_novembre_2021.pdf, https://www.who.int/publications/m/item/WHO-BS-2020.2403, Corrections, Expressions of Concern, and Retractions. The program is funded by the Government of Thailand. There was no detectable viremia in mice in both high or low-dose vaccine-treated groups while an average of 7.71104 GE/mL (ranged from 1.03103 3.75105 GE/mL) of viral RNA was detected in PBS-received mice, Fig. The 5-fold serially diluted mice sera were added in duplicate. Using a serologic test in combination with a NAAT to detect IgG or total antibodies 3 to 4 weeks after symptom onset maximizes the sensitivity and specificity to detect past SARS-CoV-2 infection. Immunogenicity and Safety of ChulaCov19 BNA159 Vaccine as a Booster Dose in Adults). Zheng, C. et al. Within the brain, ACE2 is predominantly expressed in the brain stem and regions whose primary function is to regulate blood pressure and cardiovascular function. Google Scholar. Differences were considered significant at p<0.05 with exact p-values shown. Secreted mouse IFN- was captured by anti-mouse IFN- (AN18) monoclonal antibody at dilution of 1:2,500 (Mabtech, Nacka Strand, Sweden) precoated on 96-well nitrocellulose membrane plates (Merk Millipore, Darmstadt, Germany). Goat-anti-human IgG, goat-anti-mouse IgG, or goat-anti-rabbit IgG antibodies (all were diluted 1:10,000) conjugated with horseradish peroxidase (HRP) were used as secondary antibodies (all were from KPL, MD, USA) and detected by chemiluminescence substrate (Immobilon western, Millipore, CA, USA) then exposed to an X-ray film. Overall concordance increased consistently after applying new thresholds, i.e., 148 BAU/ml (Abbott), 48 (Beckman), 559 (Roche), and 270 (Siemens). Statistical significance was determined by two-sided MannWhitney test. To date, few studies have defined correlates of protection against SARS-CoV-2 infection that can be used by regulators and vaccine developers. Freyn, A. W. et al. For tissue samples, RNeasy Mini Kit (QIAGEN, Hilden, Germany) was used following manufacturer instructions. The NAb titers were drastically enhanced after the second dose was given, p<0.01 for all dose ranges. World Health Organization. A recent randomized efficacy trial of the ChAdOx1 nCoV-19 (AZD1222) vaccine conducted in more than 8,500 patients in the United Kingdom, analyzed the antibody levels associated with protection against SARS-CoV-2 [7]. In the lung, inflammation was limited to predominantly peribronchiolar proliferation of mononuclear cells, akin to an expansion of cellularity among bronchiolar lymphoid tissue but without notable follicle formation. The average body weight by group from week 5 to week 5+6 days was demonstrated in Fig. Vaccine inequity issue remains a major global challenge. Bloomberg. In this interview conducted at Pittcon 2023 in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, we spoke to Dr. Chad Merkin, Director of the International Institute for Nanotechnology, about his work developing next-generation nanomaterials for medical applications. Previous specific optimal cutoffs fitted perfectly to patients with incomplete vaccination: a perfect agreement was observed between Genscript sVNT and each antibody binding assays among these patients (results not shown).

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