disadvantages of animal studies in psychology

Studies compared outcomes of individuals with an assistance dog to before they received the dog (six longitudinal studies), to participants on the waitlist to receive an assistance dog (five longitudinal and seven cross-sectional studies), or to participants without an assistance dog (eight cross-sectional studies). Using the CHART, both Milan [41] and Davis [44] found no group differences in social integration among those with a mobility service dog control groups. One author argued that an important methodological issue is the absence of appropriate measures in measuring the effect of an assistance dog on recipients lives [32]. An important finding from this review was that most positive findings were reported in published studies, while unpublished theses were more likely to report null findings. However, inclusion and exclusion criteria were less commonly described (17/27; 63%). found significantly lower depression and anxiety using the POMS and GHQ-30, respectively, 6-months after receiving a hearing dog [13]. As a final consideration, it is possible that assistance dogs may not confer significant psychosocial benefits as quantified by some of the standardized measures used. The process of animal model building, development and evaluation has rarely been addressed systematically, despite the long history of using animal models in the investigation of neuropsychiatric disorders and behavioral dysfunctions. However, Guest et al. A common argument against the use of animals in experiments is that animals are not good models for humans, based on the observation that we are not simply larger versions of lab rats - our bodies (and minds) work differently. Studies were eligible for inclusion if they met the following criteria: (1) The study population consisted of current or prospective owners/handlers of an assistance dog (including service, guide, hearing, and/or medical alert or response dogs) with a physical disability or chronic condition in which the assistance dog is trained to do work or perform tasks directly related to the disability or condition [4]; (2) The study collected original data on the effect of the assistance dog on their handler with at least one psychosocial outcome, including those quantifying aspects of mental health, social health, and health-related quality of life; and (3) The psychosocial outcome(s) were collected via a standardized measure tested for validity and reliability. This poses a severe threat to the validity of findings as group differences in outcomes could be caused by underlying differences in certain demographics or characteristics and cannot be confidently attributed to the presence of the assistance dog. Advantages & Disadvantages | a2-level-level-revision, psychology Advantages and Disadvantages of Animal Testing | Sciencing Comparative Psychology - Simply Psychology In the economic domain of the CHART, which assesses socio-economic independence, Davis [44] again found that those with a mobility service dog reported worse economic functioning than controls while two mobility dog studies reported null findings [30, 41]. Unfortunately, many introductory textbooks don't give the full picture of animal research. Two studies found increased social participation 3-, 6-, and 12-months [15] as well as 7-months [33] after receiving a mobility service dog, while Donovan [28] found no change in social participation 4-months receiving a mobility service dog. Grey literature was addressed by searching ProQuest Dissertations and Theses (ProQuest) and WorldCatDissertations and hand searching the abstracts of the International Society for Anthrozoology and International Association of Human Animal Interactions Organizations conferences. Second, there is inherent variation in both the quality and quantity of interactions from one assistance dog-owner pair to the next. However, only 1/6 (17%) found a significant effect, in which Yarmolkevich found higher life satisfaction among those with a guide dog compared to a control group. Study designs included both cross-sectional and longitudinal studies, with only one randomized longitudinal study identified [14]. However, other studies reported no relationship between having a mobility service dog and self-esteem via the RSES [39, 41] or other standardized measures of self-esteem [15, 28, 36]. We also planned to extract or manually calculate effect sizes to create funnel plots to investigate potential publication biases. The main reason why they are inaccurate is because of the huge differences between humans and animals. Under the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990, a United States law, an assistance dog must do work or perform tasks for the benefit of an individual with a physical, sensory, psychiatric, intellectual, or other mental disability in order to receive public access rights [4]. However, when more than one few companies uses the same resources and provide competitive parity are also known as rare resources. Evaluation of animal models of neurobehavioral disorders Two studies from the a single thesis [29] made the remaining 14 comparisons on measures of loneliness distress and complementary loneliness, finding no significant changes to loneliness six months after receiving a hearing dog and no significant group differences in loneliness compared to those without a hearing dog. A main weakness of animal studies is that animals have a different physiology to humans. However, results suggested that for most outcomes, having an assistance dog had no effect on psychosocial health and wellbeing. Regarding sleep, Guest found better self-reported sleep quality 3- and 12-months after receiving a hearing dog while Rodriguez et al. A majority of studies (18/27; 67%) assessed outcomes from mobility service dogs for individuals with physical disabilities. https://assistancedogsinternational.org/resources/adi-terms-definitions/, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0168-1591(98)00120-8, https://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health-topics/study-quality-assessment-tools, https://www.cardiff.ac.uk/specialist-unit-for-review-evidence/resources/critical-appraisal-checklists, Corrections, Expressions of Concern, and Retractions. Only Vincent et al. Nine studies assessed self-esteem as a primary outcome, with four studies [14, 32, 36, 46] finding a significant effect of having a guide, hearing, mobility, or medical service dog on self-esteem as measured by the Rosenberg Self Esteem Scale [RSES; 53]. Of 5 studies that used the mental health domain of the SF-36 or the shorter 12-Item Short Form Health Survey (SF-12), only Shintani et al. Assistance dog placements and roles have grown rapidly in recent decades, especially in the United States, Canada, and Europe [2]. These 18 studies recruited study populations with a range of physical impairments including para- or quadriplegia, musculoskeletal disorders, and neuromuscular disorders. Therefore, due to observed heterogeneity, a meta-analysis was not pursued. 2016 Jul 20;91(2):453-66. Author KR then coded 100% of articles. Psychology Research: Psychological Research on Animals In particular, not only did studies vary largely in terms of sample size, but they also varied in the manner in which statistical analyses were conducted. Will this monkey study, which enabled such a discovery to be made, be described? The scientific rigor of each study was rated according to a 5-level system while the methodological quality of each study was scored on a 7-point scale. The principle disadvantage with animal experiments is the problem of generalisability. Using another measure of energy and fatigue, Craft [40] found no difference in those with or without a mobility service dog. Ironically, those animals that are likely to be the best models for psychopathology are also likely to be considered the . How Comparative Psychologists Study Animal Behavior - Verywell Mind In terms of general social functioning, 2/10 comparisons made were significant. Most articles were published in the 2010s, indicating an increasing publication interest in this topic over time. Copyright: 2020 Rodriguez et al. Of 27 studies, 19 (70%) reported outcomes a quality of life measure with a total of 13 different standardized measures used. In fact, nine new articles were identified (three theses, six publications) that had been published since the last review on this topic in 2012 [9]. Jane K. Yatcilla, In terms of general vitality and energy, four studies used the SF-36 to measure the effect of having an assistance dog on the vitality domain. Secondly, many studies did not report sufficient detail in results in terms of estimates of variability and effect size. However, none of the four studies using the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale [CES-D; 52] found significant differences in self-reported depression among those with a mobility service dog compared to a control group [3941] or after 4-months with a mobility service dog [28]. Future studies should provide detailed researcher-specified criteria for participation as well as organizational-specified criteria for placing/receiving an assistance dog, if applicable. Assistance dog categories (guide, hearing, mobility, and medical) were collapsed for the purposes of this review, but undoubtedly contribute to the lives of individuals with disabilities in diverse ways. Of 27 studies, 18 (67%) reported outcomes a standardized measure of social health with a total of 18 different standardized measures. Articles were extracted for information based on three aims to describe study characteristics, assess methodological rigor, and summarize outcomes. While results described positive effects of service dogs in terms of social, psychological, and functional benefits for their handlers, it was concluded that all 12 of the studies had weak study designs with limitations including lack of comparison groups, inadequate description of the service dog intervention, and nonstandardized outcome measures. For example, without any animal research, effective treatments for human conditions like Alzheimers disease may very well be found, but it would certainly take decades longer to find them, and in the meantime, millions and millions of additional people would suffer. Exclusions included those based on population, outcomes, and methodology. [17] found no difference among mobility service dog users compared to controls. However, Lundqvist et al. The most common provider organizations represented were Canine Companions for Independence (CCI; six mobility service dog studies), Paws with a Cause (four mobility service dog studies), and Hearing Dogs for Deaf People (HDDP; four hearing dog studies). He is currently the chair of APAs Committee on Animal Research and Ethics. However, it should be noted that this study by Allen & Blascovich has received considerable critique due to incredibly large effect sizes, unrealistic retention and response rates, and severe methodological omissions including a lack of reporting on recruitment, funding, or where assistance dogs were sourced and trained [despite repeated requests for clarification; 64, 65]. Summary of psychological outcomes across N = 27 studies ordered by sub-category, then by standardized measure. Samples sizes ranged from 10 to 316 participants with an average sample size across all studies of N = 83 +/- 74 participants and a median sample size of N = 53. The lack of guide dog-specific research is especially surprising given that guide dogs not only have the longest history of any type of assistance dog [61] but are also the most commonly placed assistance dog placed by professional facilities worldwide [2]. To compare methodological rigor by study design, an independent t-test was used to compare mean scores across longitudinal and cross-sectional designs. Rintala et al. In other contexts, dogs can be specially trained to provide specific benefits to individuals with impairments, disabilities, or chronic conditions as trained assistance animals. [32] found that participants reported worse occupational functioning 7-months after receiving a hearing dog while Davis [44] found that individuals with a mobility service dog reported worse occupational functioning compared to a control group. As with every experimental methodology, there are disadvantages to using animals in experiments. Hall et al. [45] found higher health-related quality of life among those with a mobility service dog compared to a control group, but not among those with a hearing dog. Finally, in discussion sections, most studies (22/27; 81%) stated at least two limitations of their study. Animal experimentation, also called animal testing, has contributed to many important scientific and medical discoveries. One of the main considerations in understanding the potential variability across findings is the aspect of time since assistance dog placement. Continued efforts are required to improve methodological rigor, conduct replicable research, and account for heterogeneity in both humans and animals to advance the state of knowledge in this field. Capitanio, J. Thorough reporting in terms of the magnitude and variability of effects observed will allow researchers to make informed comparisons across populations and interventions and conduct critically needed meta-analyses in the field. Other studies found increased social connectedness 3-months after receiving a mobility or hearing dog [31] and increased community integration 6, 12, 18, and 24 months after receiving a mobility service dog [14]. We can also ask and answer certain questions that would be difficult or impossible to do with humans. Using the occupation domain of the CHART, Rintala et al. In the 1950s research which used animal subjects to investigate early life experiences and the ability for organisms to form attachments contributed significantly to the field of developmental psychology. PLOS is a nonprofit 501(c)(3) corporation, #C2354500, based in San Francisco, California, US. [17] found an effect of having an assistance dog on mental health. Inconsistencies in findings were discussed in terms of wide variability in assessment times, interventions, measures, and rigor, and recommendations were made to contribute to the knowledge of this growing application of the human-animal bond. For general psychological health, 5/11 (45%) outcomes were significant across group or condition. However, more than half of all studies (16/27; 59%) had sample sizes greater than or equal to N = 50. Many times animals have been tested on a drug and the drug was considered not harmful. Similarly, Crudden et al. The CES-D asks participants to rate how often they had experienced 20 depressive symptoms in the prior week using statements such as I thought my life had been a failure, while the POMS asks participants to rate from not at all to extremely how they feel right now using single words such as sad and unhappy. It is also possible that some standardized measures do not capture the intended effects from having an assistance dog. Study characteristics of N = 27 studies separated by longitudinal and cross-sectional designs, ordered by publication year. Overall, most (68%) of comparisons made across studies were null in which no statistical difference was found in the outcome compared to before getting an assistance dog or compared to a control group. Our objective was to identify, summarize, and methodologically evaluate studies quantifying the psychosocial effects of assistance dogs for individuals with physical disabilities. Interestingly, only one included study [16] assessed outcomes from participants under the age of 18. Researchers who study nonhumans recognize that their studies may involve certain harms that can range from the relatively minor (e.g., drawing a blood sample) to the more serious (e.g., neurosurgery). In the sub-category of independence, a total of 20 comparisons were made in which 9 (45%) were significant, but 3 (15%) were in the negative direction. Construct a Regional Innovation Ecosystem: A Case Study of the Beijing Breakthroughs include the development of many antibiotics, insulin therapy for diabetes, modern anesthesia, vaccines for whooping cough and other diseases, the use of lithium in mental health treatments, and the discovery of . The authors concluded that although results are promising, conclusions drawn from the results must be considered with caution [9]. The most commonly used measure was the Craig Handicap Assessment and Reporting Technique [CHART; 58] which assesses how people with disabilities function as active members of their communities. The electronic searches were performed on July 23, 2018, and updated on January 23, 2019. In addition to poor methodological reporting, many studies were restrained by statistical weaknesses. PLoS ONE 15(12): Three studies using SF-36 failed to find significant effects on the social domain; Lundqvist et al. Regarding emotional health, 7/15 (46%) outcomes were significant across group or condition. Of the 100 null comparisons, 43 (43%) were from published papers and 57 (57%) were from unpublished theses. This effect may be compounded by the possibility that those who apply for an assistance dog may inherently have certain positive characteristics (e.g., stable housing, stable finances, has a familial support system) that contribute to overall psychosocial health. Thus, this pattern may be better explained by the file drawer effect in which there is a bias towards publishing positive findings over null findings [79]. Many scientists study animal behavior because it sheds light on human beings. The third aim of the review was to summarize psychosocial outcomes of studies. In the mobility domain, only Milan [41] found a significant effect of having a mobility service dog on the CHART mobility domain (which includes hours per day out of bed and days per week out of the house) while Davis [44] and Rintala et al. Most studies (15/27; 56%) were conducted in the United States, followed by the United Kingdom (6/27; 22%).

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