[189] Rabbis were forced to dance and sing in public with their beards shorn off. In 13881389, broad privileges were extended to Lithuanian Jews including freedom of religion and commerce on equal terms with the Christians. [84][85] Jews, in a Jewish regiment led by Berek Joselewicz, took part in the Kociuszko Uprising the following year, when the Poles tried to again achieve independence, but were brutally put down. [214], The German Nazis established six extermination camps throughout occupied Poland by 1942. [citation needed], For those Polish Jews who remained, the rebuilding of Jewish life in Poland was carried out between October 1944 and 1950 by the Central Committee of Polish Jews (Centralny Komitet ydw Polskich, CKP) which provided legal, educational, social care, cultural, and propaganda services. [citation needed] In the years 194849, all remaining Jewish schools were nationalized by the communists and Yiddish was replaced with Polish as a language of teaching. [83] In the Lww (Lviv) pogrom, which occurred in 1918 during the PolishUkrainian War of independence a day after the Poles captured Lviv from the Sich Riflemen the report concluded 64 Jews had been killed (other accounts put the number at 72). In the same year, Alexander, when he was the Grand Duke of Lithuania, followed the 1492 example of Spanish rulers and banished Jews from Lithuania. The Pale of Settlement (Russian: , chert osdlosti, Yiddish: -, tkhum-ha-moyshv, Hebrew: , tm ha-moshv) was the term given to a region of Imperial Russia in which permanent residency by Jews was allowed and beyond which Jewish permanent residency was generally prohibited. The story behind one Berkeley Jewish man's quest for Polish citizenship In 1914, the German Zionist Max Bodenheimer founded the short-lived German Committee for Freeing of Russian Jews, with the goal of establishing a buffer state (Pufferstaat) within the Jewish Pale of Settlement, composed of the former Polish provinces annexed by Russia, being de facto protectorate of the German Empire that would free Jews in the region from Russian oppression. According to Irgun activists, the Polish state supplied the organisation with 25,000 rifles, additional material and weapons, and by summer 1939 Irgun's Warsaw warehouses held 5,000 rifles and 1,000 machine guns. There, it was reinforced by a considerable number of Polish bandits. polish citizenship by descent jewish - 3wge.com [63], Yeshivot were established, under the direction of the rabbis, in the more prominent communities. Approximately 7,600 Jews were held in a central transit camp in the city before deportation to Treblinka. [159], The Soviet Union signed a Pact with Nazi Germany on 23 August 1939 containing a protocol about partition of Poland (generally known but denied by the Soviet Union for the next 50 years). There are three ways of acquiring Polish citizenship: 1. [54] The central autonomous body that regulated Jewish life in Poland from the middle of the 16th to mid-18th century was known as the Council of Four Lands.[55]. In a letter, Polish interior minister Grzegorz Schetyna said he would "order the implementation of the appropriate procedures today." Piotr Kadlcik, president of the Union of . religion, national origin, alienage, citizenship . The fate of the Warsaw Ghetto was similar to that of the other ghettos in which Jews were concentrated. How to get a Polish Passport: Citizenship, Ancestry & More - EXPATSPOLAND The journey to Polish citizenship - The Jerusalem Post [252], Some returning Jews were met with antisemitic bias in Polish employment and education administrations. Active institutions include the Jewish Historical Institute, the E.R. It extended from the eastern pale, or demarcation line, to the western Russian border with the Kingdom of Prussia (later the German Empire) and with Austria-Hungary. [279], The Bund took part in the post-war elections of 1947 on a common ticket with the (non-communist) Polish Socialist Party (PPS) and gained its first and only parliamentary seat in its Polish history, plus several seats in municipal councils. The Judaica Foundation in Krakw has sponsored a wide range of cultural and educational programs on Jewish themes for a predominantly Polish audience. In 1495, Jews were ordered out of the center of Krakw and allowed to settle in the "Jewish town" of Kazimierz. HOTLINE +94 77 2 114 119. judith harris poet Singer Jan Kiepura, born of a Jewish mother and Polish father, was one of the most popular artists of that era, and pre-war songs of Jewish composers, including Henryk Wars, Jerzy Petersburski, Artur Gold, Henryk Gold, Zygmunt Biaostocki, Szymon Kataszek and Jakub Kagan, are still widely known in Poland today. At the same time there was an ongoing power struggle within the party itself and the antisemitic campaign was used by one faction against another. A small mound of human ashes commemorates the 350,000 victims of the Majdanek camp who were killed there by the Nazis. [275][277] According to Stephen Denburg, "unlike the restitution of Church property, the idea of returning property to former Jewish owners has been met with a decided lack of enthusiasm from both the general Polish population as well as the government". [citation needed] Jews constituted between 2% and 3% of the total number of victims of postwar violence in the country,[27][pageneeded][257] including the Polish Jews who managed to escape the Holocaust on territories of Poland annexed by the Soviet Union, and returned after the border changes imposed by the Allies at the Yalta Conference. Poles and Jews Before WWII Strategic Culture Yet another Jewish official, Jzef wiato, after escaping to the West in 1953, exposed through Radio Free Europe the interrogation methods used the UB which led to its restructuring in 1954. [263] All other properties that had been confiscated by the Nazi regime were deemed "abandoned"; however, as Yechiel Weizman notes, the fact most of Poland's Jewry had died, in conjunction with the fact that only Jewish property was officially confiscated by the Nazis, suggest "abandoned property" was equivalent to "Jewish property". At the same time, approximately 110,000 Poles had been forcibly evicted from the area. [246] For decades to come, the Soviet authorities refused to accept the fact that thousands of Jews who remained in the USSR opted consciously and unambiguously for Polish nationality. The General Zionist party became the most prominent Jewish party in the interwar period and in the 1919 elections to the first Polish Sejm since the partitions, gained 50% of the Jewish vote. Sometimes the Judenrat refused to collaborate in which case its members were consequently executed and replaced by the new group of people. Home Process Team Services Blog Contact. This forced millions to relocate (see also Territorial changes of Poland immediately after World War II). This period led to the creation of a proverb about Poland being a "heaven for the Jews". April 15 . Many of these clubs belonged to the Maccabi World Union. With funds from the city of Warsaw and the Polish government ($26 million total) a Museum of the History of Polish Jews is being built in Warsaw. [213] However, Gunnar S. Paulsson stated that Polish citizens of Warsaw managed to support and hide the same percentage of Jews as did the citizens of cities in Western European countries. The pogroms prompted a great wave of Jewish emigration to the United States. [297] On 17 June 2009 the future Museum of the History of Polish Jews in Warsaw launched a bilingual Polish-English website called "The Virtual Shtetl",[298] providing information about Jewish life in Poland. The most famous of them were Jordan and his son Lewko of Krakw in the 14th century and Jakub Slomkowicz of uck, Wolczko of Drohobycz, Natko of Lviv, Samson of Zydaczow, Josko of Hrubieszw and Szania of Belz in the 15th century. [119][120] Many Jews worked as shoemakers and tailors, as well as in the liberal professions; doctors (56% of all doctors in Poland), teachers (43%), journalists (22%) and lawyers (33%). Eastern European Dating Culture Dos and Don'ts January 31, 2023. Attempting to reclaim an occupied property often put the claimant at a risk of physical harm and even death. Jews are killed and injured during an anti-Semitic pogrom at Dbrowa Tarnowska, Poland. [269] According to Krzyanowski, this declaration of "abandoned" property can be seen as the last stage of the expropriation process that began during the German wartime occupation; by approving the status-quo shaped by the German occupation authorities, the Polish authorities became "the beneficiary of the murder of millions of its Jewish citizens, who were deprived of all their property before death". Only New York City had more Jewish residents than Warsaw. However, they were also restricted from leasing property, teaching in Yiddish, and from entering Russia. The soldiers and non-commissioned officers who were released ultimately found themselves in the Nazi ghettos and labor camps and suffered the same fate as other Jewish civilians in the ensuing Holocaust in Poland. The marchers honor Holocaust Remembrance Day as well as Israel Independence Day. "Sytuacja prawna mniejszosci ydowskiej w Drugiej Rzeczypospolitej", "Gwny Urzd Statystyczny Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej, drugi powszechny spis ludnoci z dn. Polish citizenship by descent made easy The rise of Hasidic Judaism within Poland's borders and beyond had a great influence on the rise of Haredi Judaism all over the world, with a continuous influence through its many Hasidic dynasties including those of Chabad, Aleksander, Bobov, Ger, Nadvorna, among others. Polish Citizenship by Descent | Polish Citizenship Advisors Pressure for government action reached the point where U.S. President Woodrow Wilson sent an official commission to investigate the matter. Woliska-Brus died in London in 2008. Instead, they were labelled "class enemies" by the NKVD and deported to Siberia with the others. Prominent among such rulers was Bolesaw the Pious of Kalisz, Prince of Great Poland. Under penalty of death, he prohibited the kidnapping of Jewish children for the purpose of enforced Christian baptism. For example, they could maintain communal autonomy, and live according to their own laws. Some power was shared with local councils. Controversial communist prosecutor dies in the UK", "The Jews in Poland after the Second World War. The Warsaw Ghetto was the largest in all of World War II, with 380,000 people crammed into an area of 1.3sqmi (3.4km2). [146] In 1937 Polish Minister of Foreign Affairs Jzef Beck declared in the League of Nations his support for the creation of a Jewish state and for an international conference to enable Jewish emigration. "[150][151] Escalating hostility towards Polish Jews and an official Polish government desire to remove Jews from Poland continued until the German invasion of Poland. After he was liberated from Auschwitz he went to the US, had my father and then me. [132][133] The 32% of Jewish inhabitants of Radom enjoyed considerable prominence also,[134] with 90% of small businesses in the city owned and operated by the Jews including tinsmiths, locksmiths, jewellers, tailors, hat makers, hairdressers, carpenters, house painters and wallpaper installers, shoemakers, as well as most of the artisan bakers and clock repairers. [219], Hiding in a Christian society to which the Jews were only partially assimilated was a daunting task. Contested Memories: Poles and Jews During the Holocaust and Its Aftermath. Jews were robbed and handed over to the Germans by "szmalcowniks" (the 'shmalts' people: from shmalts or szmalec, Yiddish and Polish for 'grease'). The contemporary Polish Jewish community is estimated to have between 10,000 and 20,000 members. Despite these draconian measures imposed by the Nazis, Poland has the highest number of Righteous Among The Nations awards at the Yad Vashem Museum (6,339).[227]. [153] In many cases, the Germans turned the synagogues into factories, places of entertainment, swimming pools, or prisons. Between the end of the PolishSoviet War and late 1938, the Jewish population of the Republic had grown by over 464,000. Helena Woliska-Brus, a former Stalinist prosecutor who emigrated to England in the late 1960s, fought being extradited to Poland on charges related to the execution of a Second World War resistance hero Emil Fieldorf. The commander of the OB, Mordechai Anielewicz, died fighting on 8 May 1943 at the organization's command centre on 18 Mila Street. The state-sponsored "anti-Zionist" campaign resulted in the removal of Jews from the Polish United Worker's Party and from teaching positions in schools and universities. Although Jewish losses in those events were high, the Commonwealth lost one-third of its population approximately three million of its citizens. The Talmudic learning which up to that period had been the common possession of the majority of the people became accessible to a limited number of students only. Four of these were attributed to the actions of deserters and undisciplined individual soldiers; none was blamed on official government policy. [125][126], Anti-Jewish sentiment in Poland had reached its zenith in the years leading to the Second World War. The expulsion of Polish Jews from Germany | Holocaust A Polish-Jewish footballer, Jzef Klotz, scored the first ever goal for the Poland national football team. The Warsaw Ghetto[230] and its 1943 Uprising represents what is likely the most known episode of the wartime history of the Polish Jews. [21] Paulsson's research shows that at least as far as Warsaw is concerned, the number of Poles aiding Jews far outnumbered those who sold out their Jewish neighbors to the Nazis. The Jewish Board delivers innovative, high-quality, and compassionate mental health and social services to over 45,000 New Yorkers each year. [217] Another law implemented by the Germans was that Poles were forbidden from buying from Jewish shops, and if they did they were subject to execution. "Radomski rynek rzemiosa i usug wedug danych z lat 19261929". [41] The Councils of Wrocaw (1267), Buda (1279), and czyca (1285) each segregated Jews, ordered them to wear a special emblem, banned them from holding offices where Christians would be subordinated to them, and forbade them from building more than one prayer house in each town. The Soviet Occupation of Poland, 193941, and the Stereotype of the Anti-Polish and Pro-Soviet Jew. "[197] The Germans "disappointed that Poles refused to collaborate",[198] made little attempts to set up a collaborationist government in Poland,[199][200][201] nevertheless, German tabloids printed in Polish routinely ran antisemitic articles that urged local people to adopt an attitude of indifference towards the Jews.[202]. Jewish youth and religious groups, diverse political parties and Zionist organizations, newspapers and theatre flourished. During the late 1970s some Jewish activists were engaged in the anti-Communist opposition groups. General Anders decided not to prosecute the deserters and emphasized that the Jewish soldiers who remained in the Force fought bravely. [129] In the provincial capital of uck Jews constituted 48.5% of the diverse multiethnic population of 35,550 Poles, Ukrainians, Belarusians and others. [261][bettersourceneeded] Nine alleged participants of the pogrom were sentenced to death; three were given lengthy prison sentences. In 1530 a Torah was printed in Krakw; and at the end of the century the Jewish printing houses of that city and Lublin issued a large number of Jewish books, mainly of a religious character. The concept of "Judeo-communism" was reinforced during the period of the Soviet occupation (see ydokomuna). For example, Wolczko of Drohobycz, King Ladislaus Jagieo's broker, was the owner of several villages in the Ruthenian voivodship and the soltys (administrator) of the village of Werbiz. The majority of Polish Jewish survivors were individuals who were able to find refuge in the territories of Soviet Union that were not overrun by Germans and thus safe from the Holocaust. Many Jews were found alive in the ruins of the former Warsaw Ghetto during the 1944 general Warsaw Uprising when the Poles themselves rose up against the Germans. "The Polish government was committed to the Zionist option in its own Jewish policy and maintained good relations with Jabotinsky's Revisionist Zionist, rather than with the Majority Zionists. In July 1939 the pro-government Gazeta Polska wrote, "The fact that our relations with the Reich are worsening does not in the least deactivate our program in the Jewish questionthere is not and cannot be any common ground between our internal Jewish problem and Poland's relations with the Hitlerite Reich. [135] In Lubartw, 53.6% of the town's population were Jewish also along with most of its economy. Jewish Cemetery, d is one of the largest Jewish burial grounds in Europe, and preserved historic sites include those located in Gra Kalwaria and Leajsk (Elimelech's of Lizhensk ohel). "[266], For a variety of reasons, the vast majority of returning Jewish survivors left Poland soon after the war ended. The full extent of Polish participation in the massacres of the Polish Jewish community remains a controversial subject, in part due to Jewish leaders' refusal to allow the remains of the Jewish victims to be exhumed and their cause of death to be properly established. One of its founders and chief ideologue Roman Dmowski was obsessed with an international conspiracy of freemasons and Jews, and in his works linked Marxism with Judaism. The growth of Talmudic scholarship in Poland was coincident with the greater prosperity of the Polish Jews; and because of their communal autonomy educational development was wholly one-sided and along Talmudic lines. However, the size of the Ghetto was only about 2.4% of the size of the city. [94][bettersourceneeded] The city of Lww (now in Ukraine) had the third-largest Jewish population in Poland, numbering 110,000 in 1939 (42%). [235] The final destruction of the Warsaw Ghetto came four months later after the crushing of one of the most heroic and tragic battles of the war, the 1943 Warsaw Ghetto Uprising. PolandPassport.com | FAQs | Becoming a Polish Citizen [29][30] Most of the remaining Jews left Poland in late 1968 as the result of the "anti-Zionist" campaign. [218] Many Jews tried to escape from the ghettos in the hope of finding a place to hide outside of it, or of joining the partisan units. They made up about 50%, and in some cases even 70% of the population of smaller towns, especially in Eastern Poland. The process of seeking Polish citizenship involves the collection of many documents through digital archives, dusted-off family documents, and municipal registries. The Jewish Ghetto Police were ordered to escort the ghetto inhabitants to the Umschlagplatz train station. Another athlete, Alojzy Ehrlich, won several medals in the table-tennis tournaments. The Polish government threatens to revoke the citizenship of Polish Jews who are living in Germany. [62], The culture and intellectual output of the Jewish community in Poland had a profound impact on Judaism as a whole. Jewish communities responded to this violence by reporting the violence to the Ministry of Public Administration, but were granted little assistance. [306] The American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee and Jewish Agency for Israel estimate that there are between 25,000 and 100,000 Jews living in Poland,[307] a similar number to that estimated by Jonathan Ornstein, head of the Jewish Community Center in Krakw (between 20,000 and 100,000).[308]. Part I, The Fate of Jewish Prisoners of War in the September 1939 Campaign, B. Meirtchak: "Jewish Military Casualties In The Polish Armies In Wwii", Judenrat: The Jewish Councils in Eastern Europe Under Nazi Occupation, Contested memories: Poles and Jews during the Holocaust and its aftermath. [265] According to Dariusz Stola, the 1945 and 1946 laws governing restitution were enacted with the intention of restricting Jewish restitution claims as one of their main goals. On 18 January 1943, a group of Ghetto militants led by the right-leaning ZW, including some members of the left-leaning OB, rose up in a first Warsaw uprising. They included the Biaystok pogrom of 1906 in the Grodno Governorate of Russian Poland, in which at least 75 Jews were murdered by marauding soldiers and many more Jews were wounded. [190] Numerous restrictions and prohibitions targeting Jews were introduced and brutally enforced. He lived and died in Lublin, where he was the head of the yeshivah which produced the rabbinical celebrities of the following century. "[266][271][275] As stated by Dariusz Stola, director of the POLIN Museum, "the question of restitution is in many ways connected to the question of Polish-Jewish relations, their history and remembrance, but particularly to the attitude of the Poles to the Holocaust. The task of providing ancestral documents required for the application with the Polish government is harder for Jewish people, in terms of both paperwork and the emotional memories many families face. One of the largest of these parties was the Bund, which was strongest in Warsaw and Lodz. [13] After the Partitions of Poland in 1795 and the destruction of Poland as a sovereign state, Polish Jews became subject to the laws of the partitioning powers, including the increasingly antisemitic Russian Empire,[14] as well as Austria-Hungary and Kingdom of Prussia (later a part of the German Empire). [172][173][174] The general feeling among the Polish Jews was a sense of temporary relief in having escaped the Nazi occupation in the first weeks of war. [34] Jews worked on commission for the mints of other contemporary Polish princes, including Casimir the Just, Bolesaw I the Tall and Wadysaw III Spindleshanks. In the summer of 965 or 966, Jacob made a trade and diplomatic journey from his native Toledo in Muslim Spain to the Holy Roman Empire and then to the Slavic countries. The worldwide Jewish population at that time was estimated at 1.2 million. So, if you can confirm your Polish citizenship a whole new world may open up for you. [205] While members of Catholic clergy risked their lives to assist Jews, their efforts were sometimes made in the face of antisemitic attitudes from the church hierarchy. Another cause was the gentile Polish hostility to the Communist takeover. The fact of having Polish citizenship allowed them to enlist in the Polish Army and to go with it in the summer of 1942 to the Middle East. Eleven independent political Jewish parties, of which eight were legal, existed until their dissolution during 194950. [34] The first permanent Jewish community is mentioned in 1085 by a Jewish scholar Jehuda ha-Kohen in the city of Przemyl. [194] By the end of 1941 all Jews in German-occupied Poland, except the children, had to wear an identifying badge with a blue Star of David. [244], The number of Polish Jews who survived the Holocaust is difficult to ascertain. Under the Polish Citizenship Act, Polish citizens of Jewish descent who emigrated to Israel and acquired Israeli citizenship by the Law of Return between 1958 and 1984, lost their Polish citizenship automatically. [244], Following the Soviet annexation of over half of Poland at the onset of World War II, all Polish nationals including Jews were declared by Moscow to have become Soviet nationals regardless of birth. Polish citizenship by descent made easy. [91], The newly independent Second Polish Republic had a large and vibrant Jewish minority. Some are very negative, based on the view of Christian Poles as passive witnesses who failed to act and aid the Jews as they were being persecuted or liquidated by the Nazis. "The Stroop Report The Jewish Quarter of Warsaw is No More", Secker & Warburg 1980, Under these limitations, restitution seemed to proceed well, at least for a time (see, Alina Skibiska, "Problemy rewindykacji ydowskich nieruchomoci w latach 19441950: Zagadnienia oglne i szczegowe (na przykadzie Szczebrzeszyna)," p. 493-573 in. [78] Prominent Jews were among the members of KTSSN, the nucleus of the interim government of re-emerging sovereign Poland including Herman Feldstein, Henryk Eile, Porucznik Samuel Herschthal, Dr. Zygmunt Leser, Henryk Orlean, Wiktor Chajes and others. Many attacks were launched against Jews during the Russian Civil War, the Polish-Ukrainian War, and the PolishSoviet War ending with the Treaty of Riga. In 1912, Agudat Israel, a religious party, came into existence. You can then apply for your Polish passport. Some future Israeli leaders studied at University of Warsaw, including Menachem Begin and Yitzhak Shamir. [231][232] A number of Jewish policemen were corrupt and immoral. [38], The first mention of Jewish settlers in Pock dates from 1237, in Kalisz from 1287 and a ydowska (Jewish) street in Krakw in 1304. [155] During the September Campaign some 20,000 Jewish civilians and 32,216 Jewish soldiers were killed,[156] while 61,000 were taken prisoner by the Germans;[157] the majority did not survive. [65] Jews were most numerous in the territories that fell under the military control of Austria and Russia. Find many great new & used options and get the best deals for PATHS OF EMANCIPATION Jews States Citizenship Jewish History Political Science at the best online prices at eBay! [9][10][11] In the 16h and 17th centuries, Poland welcomed Jewish immigrants from Italy, as well as Sephardi Jews and Romaniote Jews migrating there from the Ottoman Empire. History of Litvaks - Jewish heritage in Lithuania - Lithuanian Citizenship Jews such as Bruno Schulz were entering the mainstream of Polish society, though many thought of themselves as a separate nationality within Poland. Some Polish writers had Jewish roots e.g. Timothy L. Grady page 82 2017. [43] Compared with the pitiless destruction of their co-religionists in Western Europe, however, Polish Jews did not fare badly; and Jewish refugees from Germany fled to the more hospitable cities in Poland. [195][196] Rabbis were humiliated in "spectacles organised by the German soldiers and police" who used their rifle butts "to make these men dance in their praying shawls. Their departure was largely organized by the Zionist activists including Adolf Berman and Icchak Cukierman, under the umbrella of a semi-clandestine Berihah ("Flight") organization. Emanuel Ringelblum, a Polish-Jewish historian of the Warsaw Ghetto, wrote critically of the indifferent and sometimes joyful responses in Warsaw to the destruction of Polish Jews in the Ghetto. In 1884, 36 Jewish Zionist delegates met in Katowice, forming the Hovevei Zion movement. The first extensive Jewish migration from Western Europe to Poland occurred at the time of the First Crusade in 1098. The d Ghetto was the second largest, holding about 160,000 prisoners. The famous Komisja Edukacji Narodowej ("Commission of National Education"), the first ministry of education in the world, was established in 1773 and founded numerous new schools and remodeled the old ones. The Polish Government in Exile was the first (in November 1942) to reveal the existence of Nazi-run concentration camps and the systematic extermination of the Jews by the Nazis, through its courier Jan Karski[228] and through the activities of Witold Pilecki, a member of Armia Krajowa who was the only person to volunteer for imprisonment in Auschwitz and who organized a resistance movement inside the camp itself. The amount of destruction, pillage and methodical plunder during the Siege of Krakw (1657) was so enormous that parts the city never again recovered. Poland continued to be the spiritual center of Judaism. [34] Jews enjoyed undisturbed peace and prosperity in the many principalities into which the country was then divided; they formed the middle class in a country where the general population consisted of landlords (developing into szlachta, the unique Polish nobility) and peasants, and they were instrumental in promoting the commercial interests of the land. A number of Jewish soldiers died also when liberating Bologna. Confirming Polish citizenship or its loss - Poland in Israel [68], During the reign of Tsar Nicolas I, known by the Jews as "Haman the Second", hundreds of new anti-Jewish measures were enacted. The intellectual output of the Jews of Poland was reduced. The Polish general Stefan Czarniecki defeated the Swedes in 1660. Within weeks, 61.2% of Polish Jews found themselves under the German occupation, while 38.8% were trapped in the Polish areas annexed by the Soviet Union. Adam Czerniakow who was the head of the Warsaw Judenrat committed suicide when he was forced to collect daily lists of Jews to be deported to the Treblinka extermination camp at the onset of Grossaktion Warsaw.[233]. "[179], The issue of Jewish collaboration with the Soviet occupation remains controversial. [240][bettersourceneeded] A developed network of bunkers and fortifications were formed.
polish jewish citizenship